In researching the existing literature concerning the representation of gender within British wartime melodrama, there are a number of different areas that must be considered. Firstly, it is necessary to define what is meant by the term 'melodrama' in a cinematic context. This leads onto the critical writing concerning the melodrama as a generic form and, specifically, on the films produced by Gainsborough Pictures. There then follows an analysis of the different writings already undertaken on the subject of gender, concerning the cinematic representations of both femininity and masculinity. Finally, there is a review of literature related to gender within the wider context of Great Britain during the years of the Second World War.
Definitions of melodrama
It is important first of all to define some of the terms that will be used in this piece of research. In studying melodrama as a genre, not only this term must be examined, but also related terms such as cinematic 'realism'. Realism, as the dominant form of representation within popular cinema, is used by many writers as a 'standard' to which other cinematic forms, such as melodrama, can be compared and distinguished. However, if the judgements of melodrama as 'unrealistic' are "made against a norm of what constitutes the 'realistic'" (Lehman 1980: 2), this 'norm' is itself as susceptible to change and criticism as any other form. What constitutes 'realism' in the cinema is itself fluid, and recognisably bound to its historical context.
Cinematic realism can be defined as being the presentation of "a coherent reality in which individual identity is unified and clear and in which characters' actions are goal-orientated, motivating a formulaic plot pattern" (Byars 1991: 107). Furthermore, this coherence is aimed at creating an image of transparency, with the intention of presenting film not as a constructed product, but as a believable recording of how things are (ibid.: 27).
Within the context of wartime British film production, Lant states that contemporary critics advocated that British cinema develop and utilise a new form of realism in order to produce films "without false emotion or sentimental heroics" (1991: 14). In other words, distinct from the films produced by Hollywood. This conception of both realism and what British films should be is in clear contrast with perceptions of the Gainsborough melodramas. Lant also suggests that there was a widespread view that British thoughts and ideas could be expressed and represented only by realism (ibid.: 34).
It was therefore against this background of the privileging of cinematic realism that Gainsborough operated, receiving "unparalleled critical opprobrium" for conforming to neither the contemporary ideals of realism nor 'good taste' (Harper 1987: 167).
Existing material on melodrama
As a genre, Melodrama is difficult to define precisely; elements of melodrama are present in almost all cinematic genres. Melodrama can also be divided into a number of sub-genres. Within the genre, Williams identifies the "earlier and always numerically more common 'costume epic', peopled by pirates, bandits, soldiers and 'historical' figures of all kinds" (1983: 16). Of the Gainsborough films to be examined in this research, all except They Were Sisters can be put under this category. However, the characteristics of other sub-genres such as the family melodrama and romance can also be recognised in these films.
The representational forms of melodrama have been the subject of a large amount of writing within the area of film studies. This has in part been due to the aim of feminist criticism to 'reclaim' the formerly neglected area of 'women's films'. Haskell notes the disparaging usage of that particular term amongst the male-dominated 'critical brotherhood'; "as a term used by primarily male academia, it infers that women's experience and emotions are "of minor significance" " (1987: 154). This perspective argues that the body of melodrama films, focussing on the experience and aimed at an audience of women, has been discounted within the patriarchal system.
That melodramas were intended primarily for a female audience is of clear importance to many writers on the subject. One of the issues raised is whether the films expose the contradictions of masculinity, dominant male society (Gledhill 1987: 10) and women's places within that society, or whether "they merely reinforce the dominant ideology" (Lehman 1980: 2).
Byars recognises that the "struggle over (the construction of) gender in films" must be examined; it is not merely a case of films either representing 'resistance' to the dominant ideology or, because of their creation within a patriarchal power structure, "serving solely to reinforce patriarchal patterns" (1991: 6). Gender in any generic form is therefore an area of discourse, not simply conforming or oppositional to dominant ideological stances.
In order to construct a framework for my analysis, both Elsaesser's work on melodrama (1972) and McQueen's more general generic categories (1998) will be utilised, and discussed in depth in the generic form and analysis chapters.
Existing material on Gainsborough
Aspinall proposes that, amongst the British wartime films targeted towards a female audience, there are three loose 'types'. The first two of these are the 'quality' films, such as Brief Encounter (David Lean, 1945), catering "for well bred tastes by presenting images of well bred women", and "the unserious entertainments, abounding with gypsies, peasants and Regency aristocrats - with anything, in fact, which is removed from the class realities of the present". Thirdly, Aspinall suggests a category which shares some elements with the other two but does not belong to either; films which are "neither in the 'quality' market nor in the realm of unabashed fantasy" (1983: 273). Aspinall includes They Were Sisters in this group. Gainsborough's melodramas could not however be perceived as belonging to the 'quality' category; neither could they be viewed as 'respectable', as the output of Ealing Studios was (Aspinall and Murphy 1983: 1).
Landy suggests that melodrama "provides a significant index to cultural aspirations, dreams and fantasies" (1991: 189), and that the Gainsborough films in particular "constitute a unique contribution to women's representation" (ibid.:195). This piece of work also draws attention to the seemingly contradictory nature of these films, that although consciously constructed as escapism, they also "touched on everyday conflicts concerning women's experience" (ibid.:195). Landy also comments on the way in which the form of the costume melodrama allows the expression of ideas that could not otherwise be raised in a cinematic context. Landy quotes Harper as stating that the films' popularity can be in part explained by their representation of "a female sexuality denied expression through conventional social forms and signifying systems" (Landy 1991: 196).
However, the actual analysis of the films in Landy's study is extremely brief, and states that "the narratives involved rebellious females", "conflicts over class and status, and, above all, the quest of the female characters for adventure" (1991: 196). It is also asserted that within these films, women are portrayed as being divided and in conflict with each other. However, Landy offers little explanation of how these readings were arrived at, and no close readings of the texts. Landy refers to the films as a homogenous group, and does not distinguish between the different readings that may be possible by looking at individual films; the readings made are overt generalisations.
The research done by Landy is representative of a large number of the studies concerning the Gainsborough melodramas. It states why this body of work is important within its social and historical context, and then makes various comments on the films, but with little detail and without examining the films with any systematic methodology. As a further example, Lant briefly refers to The Wicked Lady as a film concerned with "wartime issues" (1991: 139-140), but not in any detail. Lant's reading of this film is that as the main character "acquires masculine talents … under cover of darkness", she is acting in much the same way as many women were during the war (ibid.: 140).
The portrayals of masculinity are either ignored or quickly described in the literature. One brief reference is Landy's generalisation that "the men are portrayed as either cruel or domineering" (1991: 196).
Existing studies of gender
Kirkham and Thumim suggest four elements that can be examined in the understanding of the cinematic representation of masculinity; "the body, action, the external world and the internal world" (1993: 11). The first three of these are of particular relevance to this research subject. The first two areas refer to the visual representation of male characters and the various manifestations of the physical. The 'external world' refers to "the interaction of male characters to each other and with the conventions and institutions against which they operate" (ibid.: 12).
In addition, Ryall states that definitions of masculine identity "also emerge from the contrast between different versions of masculinity … embodied in particular male characters and highlighted through their interrelationships" (1993: 154) and "from narrative situation and the tests to which the hero is subjected" (ibid.: 160). Although references to a 'hero' are of varying relevance in examining these Gainsborough melodramas, the films do feature a large number of situations which can be viewed as 'tests', both for male and female characters.
Ryall also highlights the importance of the style and performance of the male leading actors (ibid.: 160), which is obviously also of great importance in regard to the female characters. In this way, actors can be used as iconography, bringing additional levels of signification to the characters being portrayed.
Literature on gender and sexuality in wartime Britain
Swanson states that the Second World War was "crucial to the post-war project of modernising femininity, especially in the enhanced attention paid to familial and sexual relations" (1996: 70). These relations came to be viewed as of a greater importance because of a number of factors, especially the employment of women in the war effort. During the war, women were employed in a wide range of occupations, from factory and white-collar work to the armed services (Bruley 1999: 101-102). Furthermore, there has been some suggestion that although women did not gain a simplistic 'liberation' as a result of this work, a greater degree of liberation was achieved (ibid.: 93).
Bruley also asserts that during this period sexuality became much more overt. The two main reasons suggested for this are the large amount of overseas troops present in Britain, with larger amounts of money than British soldiers, and the emergence of mass entertainment forms such as the dance hall and cinema, providing "the ideal territory for romantic encounters" (1991: 114) and the expression of sexuality.
Divorce was also an important issue during the Second World War. Smart describes the difficulties of divorce in this historical context, suggesting that there was "a kind of yearning, a moment when women were desirous of greater freedoms" (1996: 91) but unable, in many cases, to satisfy these desires. There was however a large rise in the divorce rate at the end of the war (Summerfield 1995: 314).
I now wish to define the generic markers to be used for the identification of the melodramatic form in Gainsborough's films.