While a considerable amount of fanzines have been published and played an important part in various subcultures throughout the last twenty years, they have only occasionally been written on in any great length. Perhaps part of the reason for this is the division between self-publishers and the professional publishing world. Although the number of commercially published pieces of writing on fanzines is small, there does however exist a larger amount of analytical literature both within fanzines themselves and available on the Internet.

The majority of writing that has been done on fanzines in the United Kingdom concentrates primarily on those that have football as their main topic. Despite the volume of music-related fanzine publications, this is not an area that has been examined at anything more than the most basic level. However, a number of books do exist which touch upon the area and can be used as sources of background information along with various fanzine and Internet sources.

One of the most interesting publications that I found whilst researching fanzines is How to Publish Fanzines by Mike Gunderloy, which was written not only about but more specifically for the designing and distribution of them. Gunderloy, the former publisher of zine compilation Factsheet Five (which often reviewed in excess of 600 zines in each issue), writes with a large amount of experience in the field of zines. Originally published in 1988, How to Publish Fanzines is now available at no cost in an electronic format on the Internet to be used as a resource guide for people interested in creating their own fanzine or requiring help with their existing one. This publication is therefore a useful text not only as a more general source for this dissertation, but also as an introductory overview of fanzines. I wish then to initially concentrate on Gunderloy's work .

How to Publish Fanzines is aimed at guiding the potential fanzine writer through all the necessary areas of zine production, distribution and promotion, including some quite detailed information on various ways of printing, mailing and financing; not necessarily areas that the beginner to fanzines would think were intrinsic. Gunderloy's first chapter serves as a good introduction to fanzine publishing. The principal reasons for people creating fanzines are suggested as falling into the three categories of fun, fame and fortune, before going on to say that whilst the first of these is almost certain, the second is somewhat more unlikely and the third nearly impossible. For instance, even when Factsheet Five had a circulation of 2000, Gunderloy refers to this being "large enough to be a hell of a lot of work, too small to make a lot of money" (1988: 5). It is however recognised that, with the aid of perseverance and hard work, fanzines can produce a certain amount of fame within "limited circles" (ibid.). What Gunderloy is reinforcing here is that fanzines exist for fun, rather than for profit.

Gunderloy then lists the different areas of zine publishing, as described in chapter one of this dissertation, before giving the potential zine publisher some advice on choosing a suitable topic for their fanzine. The interesting thing here is the underlying idea that someone might be interested in publishing a fanzine before having a subject matter for it. This runs contrary to conventional publishing practise, where an idea is created first, and decisions are then made as to how this can be put into effect; it suggests that in fanzines, the method and the form is perhaps of greater importance than substance. However, Gunderloy does also stress the necessity of content that taps the writer's experience and, at the same time, obtains a 'market niche' through specialisation (ibid. 15-16).

Gunderloy then moves onto the various production aspects of fanzine publishing. Here he makes a point that may not necessarily be associated with zine writing; that drafts and corrections are an important part of production in order to avoid misspellings and bad style (ibid. 18). Editing the work of other writers is also covered in two points, "finding them and taming them" (ibid. 19). On the subject of finding writers, it is suggested that the fanzine publisher asks everyone that they can; the idea that an extremely large amount of people have the hidden ability and desire to get their writing published is one of the foundations of zine culture. On the "taming" side, Gunderloy puts forward a few principles of writer management such as deadlines (for example sending postcards to columnists about two weeks before their piece is due), guidelines for content and any payment terms. In addition to this, it is also mentioned that writers should understand that ""to edit" is an active verb". Whilst fanzines do conceptually exist as a far freer medium of expression than commercial magazines, contributions still require editing for style and size, although some writers will take offence at any changes being made (ibid.). Gunderloy suggests avoiding all dealings with such writers, with the implication that the only way for them to be satisfied is through them publishing their own fanzine.

The chapter in How to Publish Fanzines that relates to production then goes through every stage of getting the zine ready to print and the different options open to the publisher. These begin with handwriting the entirety of the zine, which although sometimes done can often create problems of legibility (whether intentional or not). Some form of "mechanical aid" is therefore required. As the cheapest option for fanzine publishers, Gunderloy goes into some detail on what should be looked for when buying a typewriter. This includes some important points that would not generally be thought of by the beginner, such as the different types of ribbon and their print quality, whether the typeface is changeable, and how hard it types. The other possible options are then dealt with in order of expense; the use of computers and typesetters.

Gunderloy was certainly aware that the computer situation was changing when he wrote How to Publish Fanzines, although the rate of change over the twelve years since its publication has been such that much of the computer information supplied is superfluous. This either advises publishers to search for things now taken for granted with computers ("a good word processing program will allow you to justify your text, count the words you have written, or move text from one file to another" (ibid. 21)) or mentions obsolete items such as the dot-matrix printer. The option of professional typesetting is also suggested, along with the capability of many typesetters to accept manuscripts through a modem line.

The section on layout is aimed at fanzines reproduced using either photocopying or offset, with information on cutting and pasting "little pieces of paper to big ones" (ibid. 25). Gunderloy has two main rules on designing layout; not to put too much on any one page, and to make what is there easy to follow. He suggests the creation of a dummy book before anything else is done in order for the publisher to be able to see how the pages will need to be imposed and for the drawing of a rough layout of articles on each page. He then suggests drawing the layout, including blocks of text, images and margins, on a full size piece of paper with a blue pencil (which will not be picked up by the camera when reproduced) and then applying the content to this guide.

Gunderloy then devotes a chapter to printing and binding the zine. He runs through the different options available to the small publisher; the use of hectographs, ditto machines, mimeograph, the traditional photocopier, printing copies directly from a computer, and, at the more professional end, using offset printing. What is stressed here is that the potential zine publisher should use any facilities available to them, and that photocopying is the standard method of printing unless the zine's print run reaches a number where offset printing becomes a less expensive alternative (ibid. 30-39). The small section on binding concentrates on stapling, which Gunderloy strongly suggests that the fanzine producer does personally. His solution to the large task of putting together multiple copies of a lengthy zine demonstrates the social and community-based side of fanzines; he suggests that friends are invited over for a "collating party" to help put the zine together (ibid. 42).

With the zine now finished, Gunderloy now concentrates on distribution and how to reach the intended audience. The first section of this is a lengthy discussion of the various options available in terms of the postal service and how to decide the best means of mailing fanzines. The next section is on promotion and financing, which according to Gunderloy is the area where zine publishers have the most problems (ibid. 52). The first point made here is the importance of advertising, and particularly the need to get reviewed in other fanzines. Gunderloy refers to the necessity of being featured in review zines (such as his own Factsheet Five), and stresses the need to reach a large readership through an established review zine. The non-commercial basis on which zines operate is also highlighted in the suggestion that zines should swap advertising space with each other (ibid. 52-53).

Prices and subscriptions are then discussed. Gunderloy's advice here is that the beginning fanzine publisher should not try to price their zine in a way that is attempting to recover all costs, or it will be pricing itself out of the market. He then goes on to discount structures for samples and subscriptions. The subscribing "usual" is perceived as being an extremely desirable commodity for the zine publisher, enabling them to have a little security on how many copies will sell, with the drawback being that the zine is expected to be published on at least a semi-regular basis, which is not always a feature of small-press publishing. One interesting thing regarding subscriptions is that Gunderloy advises that the deal offered should be simply a multiple of the cover price, so if the fanzine is priced at one pound, then subscriptions should be offered at six pounds for six issues, for example. Whilst this does not initially seem to be a saving for the reader, when it is recognised that the price of zines generally rises, it does seem to be quite an incentive. The problem however lies in fanzines folding almost as often as the prices go up and meaning that the subscriber loses whatever subscription they have paid to the small publisher financially unable to give refunds (ibid. 56).

Gunderloy also stresses the importance of doing basic record-keeping and accounting, avoiding the common fanzine publisher mistake of mixing subscription finances with personal funds and maintaining a list of all readers so as to not lose credibility. Gunderloy also refers here to deals with distributors and the possible arrangements with them such as consignment sale, despite his comment that very few distributors are willing to take small-scale zines (ibid. 60). Finally in this section, it is mentioned that it is necessary for large fanzines to pay their taxes, although very few are of such a size that they fall into this category.

The remainder of How to Publish Fanzines deals with three quite different case studies; Gunderloy's diary as he produced a copy of his Factsheet Five zine, his experience of publishing a school underground newspaper, and, most interestingly, how to publish when the state will not allow it. This section displays the radical roots of fanzines, dealing with fanzines published anywhere in the world that would put the publisher in danger of prosecution or imprisonment if they were to be discovered. As a tract in guerrilla information warfare, this section does seem out of place appended to the very practical and mundane handbook that precedes it. However, it is clearly an intrinsic part of fanzines' existence that they should be able to publish and distribute freely, even when this involves following what Gunderloy puts forward as the two basic rules; "you can't trust anyone" and "you can't afford to leave any evidence behind you" (ibid. 71).

I now wish to examine a variety of other writing on fanzines in order to identify the more general theories that have been applied to zines. Quite a number of these are concerned with the establishment of a binary opposition, whether it is between mainstream and independent, commercial and non-profit, or personal and professional.

David Rowe's Popular Cultures explores the links between music and sport fandom. His covering of fanzines concentrates primarily on those related to sport, and how sport has "its own media 'independent movement' in the form of the fanzine" (Rowe 1995: 16). Rowe's principal aim in his writing appears to be to set up a binary opposition between the mainstream and independent, which he examines first in terms of the growth of 'indie' record labels. As these independent record labels grew in number and popularity, Rowe refers to the growth of fanzines as "their literary equivalents…established as alternatives to the major music papers", such as the New Music Express, in order to relate to the new music being released (ibid. 36).

Rowe quotes Leonard and Shannon as describing the expansion of independent recording activity, and correspondingly, the increase in independent music writing, as being a direct movement against the "virtual monopoly" held by a very limited number of companies (ibid. 37). This also corresponds with Simon Frith's statement of the "explicitly anti-professional attitude" in music at this time attempting to concentrate again upon musicians, as opposed to markets, and "music as a mode of survival rather than as a means to profit" (ibid. 37).

The discussion of sports fanzines highlights the way that marginalised social groups are able to find express themselves through the small press. The two examples here display ignored groups of supporters finding a voice for themselves through their fanzines. Both in the case of the gay and lesbian The Football Pink and the women's Against the Tide: the Voice of Women Who Just Love Football, these publications allow writing on areas of sport virtually ignored by the media such as women's football. Rowe does however also note that The Football Pink does reflect "the male dominance of 'heterosexual' sport" in that the majority of articles are written by gay men about gay men's football. Despite this, the presence of such fanzines as Against the Tide has begun to disrupt the traditional male dominance of mainstream sport (ibid. 142).

Rowe also has an interesting discussion of the problems of expansion for fanzines. When something that has from its origins been a "fan-driven" publication achieves significant turnover and readership, it is clearly difficult for it to continue as an independent fanzine and can be perceived as having turned into the commercial counterparts that it was created in opposition to. The need for fanzine publications is here viewed as being a result of some 'failing' of the mainstream media. Professionals are suggested to be too close to their subjects and too remote from the "common fan" to be of any real relevance (ibid. 161).

Concentrating on football fanzines, Rowe also discusses the role of fanzines in raising issues that are important to supporters, issues that they, for the most part, are excluded from (ibid. 162). Fanzines are therefore a way of reclaiming the game from those who have taken it away from 'the people', just as Haynes writes about this as imbued with a sense of "nostalgia for a past form of democracy within football, whether real or imagined" (1995: 7).

There is however some concession about the ability of fanzines to reach varying groups of people. Rowe quotes the editor of When Saturday Comes, a semi-professional football fanzine, as saying that the average reader is "in their 20s…likely to be a student…predominantly male…we only ever really thought about stuff that we find interesting ourselves; if other people are interested then fair enough" (1995: 162). He later goes on to mention the view of zines as "small-scale, marginal alternative media which confirm the subordinate status of their readerships" (ibid. 165).

Rowe furthermore goes on to comment that sports as well as music fanzines can be viewed as "rounding out" the range of publications available and "occupying complementary niche markets", as opposed to "presenting a fundamental alternative" to the available mainstream media (ibid. 163).

In line with this, Rowe also quotes the views of various professional sports writers on fanzines. These range from being slightly to more deeply disparaging and, where there is limited praise, it is put it more on zines' ability to be entertaining, rather than meaningful or insightful reading. One writer puts the emphasis on fanzine writers not having the connections to the clubs that enable them to get important stories; football fanzine content is viewed as being reliant upon rumours on the terraces. Despite this, there is some recognition of writers who started on fanzines but have now been assimilated into the mainstream; suggesting that fanzines, to some extent, function as nurseries for mainstream organisations (ibid. 163-4).

Rowe does however also suggest two other possible functions of sports fanzines; to act as "popular safety valves for frustrated sports fans" and as specialist niche publications which comfortably co-exist with the more general outlets" (ibid. 164). He does however note the capacity of fanzines to cater to readerships neglected by more established media forms and "celebrate their difference in the face of … marginalisation" (ibid. 165). What is however noted here is that while these limited circulation publications might create a voice and form of expression for otherwise isolated groups, their existence can also be seen as a confirmation of their readership's "subordinate status" (ibid. 165).

Radicalism is seen by many as an intrinsic part of the nature of fanzines; even in the area of sports, a 'Radical Football Faction' (Haynes 1995: 21) can be referred to. Gunderloy recognises that music fanzines, and punk fanzines in particular, "have overtones of politics, animal rights, anarchy, or similar social movements" (ibid. 89).

This radicalism is in part linked to the subversion of commercial media forms. One of the ways in which this is done is by the overt personalisation of content, at odds with commercial magazines' distance from their subjects, including the presence of working class language and a belief in DIY production values (Haynes 1995: 40). Haynes furthermore goes on to suggest that the emergence of this radical new medium in an "alternative network" (ibid. 41).

The idea of an alternative, underground network, at odds with established media forms, is focussed on in some depth in Stephen Duncombe's Notes from Underground: Zines and the politics of Alternative Culture. Here Duncombe describes zines as an alternative, communal network that holds together a "virtual bohemia" (1997: 14).

Haynes also discusses the influence of the original punk fanzines, as will be examined in the chapter of this dissertation concerned with fanzine history and development. A number of articles about the development of fanzines on the Internet have also been written which I will explore in the related chapter later in this dissertation.